Carmen Jones Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Carmen Jones - Essay Example Carmen Jones was a 1943 musical which was later adapted to film in 1954. Much of the original cast was African American during a time in this country when segregation was still prominent. This fictional story is centered around one character by the name of Carmen Jones and is done so in musical fashion. Carmen Jones is a young woman who makes parachutes for the flyboys in the American military. Incidentally, Carmen falls in love with one flyboy in particular named Joe. Joe however, is initially in love with another girl by the name of Cindy Lou. Joe intends to marry Cindy Lou on his next day of leave only to spurn Carmen’s jealousy enough to cause her to destroy a parachute. Since the parachute is government property, Carmen is in danger of getting in to trouble for doing so, so she must flea and does so with Joe. As they run off together, Carmen is able to both enchant and seduce Joe, who quickly forgets about Cindy Lou. As a result, Joe does not return to his post as he is s upposed to and therefore is court marshaled. Carmen in the meantime, meets a boxer in a saloon who invites her and her friends to attend his next boxing match. At first, Carmen does not consent to go but then later sees the wealth bestowed on her friends by Husky the boxer, and so therefore decides to accept the advances of Husky while rejecting Joe altogether. While at the apartment of Husky the boxer, Carmen has her cards read to her wherein she learns that death is soon coming for her. Additionally, Joe is confronted with Cindy Lou who wishes fro him to return to her and marry her. He rejects her completely as he is in love with Carmen. Incidentally, it is Joe who comes for her shortly after this in hopes of convincing her to come back to him. When she rejects him, he kills her thereby fulfilling the prophecy of the cards. In looking at the multi-layered themes of this piece, there is a lot to

Linear Regression and Regression Analysis Assignment

Linear Regression and Regression Analysis - Assignment Example Linear regression refers to an approach that involves modeling the relationship that exists between a dependent variable Y and explanatory variable(s) X. The model for linear regression requires that the variables take up the relationship illustrated below: Therefore, regression analysis is the process of determining the parameters that make up the equation defining that defines the relationship between the variables. This forms the basis for further evaluation of the variables through an in-depth analysis of the basic components of the equation that would result into a line of best fit. Regression analysis is defined on basis of the goal of conducting regression, which is to develop a line of best fit for the variables under investigation (Kahane, 2001). The goal of using the technique is to establish the relationship and strength of the relationship between two or more variables. This technique is applicable in criminal justice in a number of ways. Regression analysis is useful in evaluating the relationship existing between various aspects of criminal justice. By acknowledging that there are events that take up the position of being determinants of the outcomes of other variables, this technique can be applied in Criminal justice. The regression analysis is pertinent in determining the relationship among variables as a basis for evaluation of the best practices and structures to adopt with regards to the criminal justice system. For instance, upon establishing the nature and strength of the relationship among variables, it is possible to evaluate the impact of specific changes on one to the other. This analysis is important in developing an understanding of the different ways in which improvements can be made to one of the variabl e in order to change the other (Williams, 2009). There are many ways in which regression analysis is applicable to criminal justice. For instance, when conducting a study on the relationship between criminal

Organ Transplants Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Organ Transplants - Essay Example Several apocryphal accounts of transplants exist well prior to the scientific understanding and advancements that would be necessary for them to have actually occurred. The Chinese physician Pien Ch-iao reportedly exchanged hearts between a man of strong spirit but weak will with one of a man of weak spirit but strong will in an attempt to achieve balance in each man. Roman Catholic mythology reports the third-century saints Damian and Cosmas as replacing the gangrenous leg of the Roman deacon Justinian with the leg of a recently deceased Ethiopian. Most accounts have the saints performing the transplant in the fourth century A.D., decades after their death; some accounts have them only instructing living surgeons who performed the procedure. More likely accounts exist in the area of skin transplantation. The first reasonable account is of the Indian surgeon Sushruta in the second century B.C., who used autografted skin transplantation in nose reconstruction rhinoplasty. Success or failure of these procedures is not well documented. Centuries later, the Italian surgeon Gaspare Tagliacozzi performed successful skin autografts; he also failed consistently with allografts, offering the first suggestion of rejection centuries before that mechanism could possibly be understood. He attributed it to the "force and power of individuality" in his 1596 work De Curtorum Chirurgia per Insitionem. Transplants #3 The first successful corneal allograft transplant was performed in 1837 in a gazelle model; the first successful human corneal transplant, a keratoplastic operation, was performed by Eduard Zirm in Austria in 1905. Pioneering work in the surgical technique of transplantation was made in the early 1900s by the French surgeon Alexis Carrel, with Charles Guthrie, with the transplantation of arteries or veins. Their skillful anastomosis operations, the new suturing techniques, laid the groundwork for later transplant surgery and won Carrel the 1912 Nobel Prize for Medicine or Physiology. From 1902 Carrel performed transplant experiments on dogs. Surgically successful in moving kidneys, hearts and spleens, he was one of the first to identify the problem of rejection, which remained insurmountable for decades. Major steps in skin transplantation occurred during WW I, notably in the work of Harold Gillies at Aldershot. Among his advances was the tubed pedicle graft, maintaining a flesh connection from the donor site until the graft established its own blood flow. Gillies' assistant, Archibald McIndoe, carried on the work into WW II as reconstructive surgery. In 1962 the first successful replantation surgery was performed - re-attaching a severed limb and restoring (limited) functioning and feeling. The first attempted human deceased-donor transplant was performed by the Ukrainian surgeon Yu Yu Voronoy in the 1930s; rejection resulted in failure. Joseph Murray performed the first successful transplant, a kidney transplant between identical twins, in 1954, successful because no immunosuppression was necessary in genetically identical twins. In the late 1940s Peter Medawar, working for the National Institute for Medical Research, improved the understanding of rejection. Identifying the immune reactions in 1951 Medawar suggested that immunosuppressive drugs could be used. Cortisone had

Jean Watsons theory of caring Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Jean Watsons theory of caring - Essay Example This paper talks on Jane Watson's theory of nursing. Her theory is based on the belief that a caring attitude among the nurses for their patients is an essential part of getting well. Moreover, a real and heart-felt caring attitude develops from a humanistic personal value system that comes from a liberal arts background in college. She calls this caring attitude as composed of â€Å"carative† factors (from the word care) and is encapsulated in her seven major assumptions as contained in her theory of nursing. Furthermore, she elaborated on this theory in her ten â€Å"carative† factors that should serve as a guide in today's complex world of nursing. The major point of her theory is to re-emphasize the caring factors which are somehow lost in the current focus on technological and technical factors in medicine and nursing care. People seem to have forgotten how crucial caring is because of the rapid commercialization of the health care industry. Patients are now viewed or termed as clients and no different from a regular sales transaction in which the health care nurse or any medical professional is the seller and the patient is the customer. Jane Watson's theory has great significance today in view of emphasis that patients should be treated first and foremost as human beings who have feelings which can either send them back to either good or ill health depending on the attitude exhibited by their nurses. Profound changes in the medical and scientific technologies should not diminish the patient as a person. Keywords: altruism, carative, caring, humanistic, nursing, personal, theory, values Introduction Nursing today is a recognized profession and forms a crucial part of the health care team. Nurses have their own code of ethics to guide them through the challenges and ethical issues that they often encounter in their practice. It has gone a very long way since the days of Ms. Florence Nightingale whose original philosophy was limited to caring of the wounded and the sick as she had witnessed during a war. Nursing has since expanded to many specialties such that nurses are to be trained academically as well as acquire practical skills through learning by experience. The big part of nursing practice is anchored on certain theories about proper care in all aspects of the human life. Nursing has since expanded to include important components in human life: ranging from the conception of life itself, the entire birth-death cycle, personal relationships, good health, healing, pain, suffering, loss, grieving and caring (Watson, 2008, p. 2). Nursing practice is based on a number of competing theories about caring for the sick and how to promote good health in general. It has evolved since and is still evolving even today. This paper discusses Jean Watson's own theory of nursing as opposed to the other nursing theories in current practice. Nursing as a distinct profession has its unique focus for knowledge acquisition and developm ent through the totality of its philosophy, research, theories and practical wisdom. The knowledge so acquired is used to guide actual nursing practice but obviously, this can also change from time to time depending on which nursing theory seems plausible and workable. The theories of Jean Watson are remarkable in one respect which is to bring back humanity to a side of nursing which had been criticized in some quarters of society as being too cold and clinical for forgetting that patients are people who have feelings that can get hurt if not handled well. Discussion Background of Theory – Jean Watson had a doctorate degree in nursing and so was able to develop her theory based on extensive knowledge together with equally impressive working experiences. She has both undergraduate and graduate degrees in nursing and psychiatric health nursing as well as another doctorate degree

American Policing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

American Policing - Essay Example was characterized by crime control, efficient organization, professional remoteness from the community, hiring of competent and qualified personnel in curbing police inefficiency, and it stressed on preventive rapid and motorized response to crime. Police officers standardized and routinized police work, officers were mandated to enforce law and make arrests whenever they could. Further, when specific problems arose, special police units such as tactical or juvenile were established to deal with the issues rather than giving problems to patrol officers (Cole & Smith, 2004). These characteristics squared with those principles suggested by Robert Peel in that, they emphasized on the importance of preventing crime and disorder in society. In addition, during the professional era of policing, the stressed on the need of public approval to be efficient and effective which are in agreement with Robert’s tenets of policing. In addition, if the police used force in enforcing law and order, the degree of cooperation with the public declines. In addition, the police must obtain the willing cooperation of the people to respect and obey the law in order to get respect of the public. Further, the police are allowed to apply force only after using all other means to get compliance from law breakers. Lastly, the police just like other members of the public too belong to the public who are discharging their service to secure the welfare of the society or public (Cole & Smith, 2004). Community oriented policing was created as a result of increase in crime. The community oriented policing brings government officials, community, professionals and neighborhood together to trace and solve problems within community and partner together to solve these problems. The concept of community policing was created to reunite the community by reducing crime and fear in society. The interaction between the police and the community can help reduce fear and crime in society. Community policing

Program Summary Essay Example for Free

Program Summary Essay The process of a program’s development is to acknowledge what exactly the program is, and what mission they set forth to achieve. Regarding the Far West Elementary School’s organization mission where they work as a team filled with parents, and staff who are dedicated to creating a caring, exciting environment that promotes responsibility, self esteem, and academic achievement where differences are valued and learning is a lifelong goal. Although the mission promotes responsibility the school lacks in English proficiency. This program curriculum is undeveloped because the staff is lacking the qualifications; they are teaching the children using non certified or non licensed skills. The material needs to be upgraded via the English curricula. In order for the limited English proficiency (LEP) skills to grow the qualifications of the staff must be qualified. Within this program it will provide thoroughness, communication, and financial management. These elements are needed because it will build the morale of the program, the current staff and students skills, and the community of the low cost area of Far West Elementary School. Assessments: Assessments will be to analyze the programs purpose and its empowerment. According to, Gutierrez (1994) defines empowerment as the â€Å"process of increasing personal, interpersonal, or political power so that individuals, families, and communities can take action to improve their situations†. I chose this quote because I felt it works well with the school and how one can increase their skills when it comes to defining the process and determining the goal. The assessments determine if the faculty member is qualified to teach in a professional manner? The assessments will be constructed by licensed bilingual counselors who document the knowledge, skills, and beliefs of the staff; it will focus on the case studies, the learning styles, and experimental work (Wikipedia, 2009) of students as well. Once the staff members are increasing their English proficiency skills the students will then become more advanced. This will serve as the process used for the staff being a positive outcome. The process will prove that the development of the plan was evaluated; it will identify the measure used to develop the plan, which were the workshop sessions. The data collected will be the presented through the students and their English skills increasing. The reporting and results will follow by the many programs that will be offered, by the families of the students skills improving, and the preparation of enrolling new students and staff within the school. The thoroughness the program will reflect will show how eager it is increasing the English skill in the community. It will drain all energy taken with the counselors using with their senior skills, in making sure all aspects of the program’s session are passed. This will include the performance of the community, the faculty, and the productiveness of the students. The measures the program assessments will take will be resourceful in present and future lives of the students. They will be constructed to abide by the mission of the school. Needs and Problem Statement: The programs needs and problem assessments would be to evaluate the staff and improve their proficiently in teaching the English language. Specific needs of the program to be focused on are alternative certification program, special support for teachers, and improving the skills for higher education. The influences and expectations play in a role in administrator’s role of the agency because the significance of it is to connect with their staff and oversea that duties of the agency are being done. According, to Far West Elementary School administrators their needs are to make sure that the (LEP) skills are increased by making sure the staff are taking advantage of all the training programs offered by the counselors and funders. Administrators are to make sure the pressure is on in understanding the fact that achieving the (LEP) skill betters the elementary school, the staff guiding and forcing the direction. The problem occurs when there aren’t any funds being allocated for the program. Program Planning: Grant funding will be set through the proposal planning for the program. The program will propose the government with its attribute and prove the program should is qualified enough for their funds. By, introducing yourself and introducing the program that you want funded, it will benefit the people of the community. The function of the grant proposal is to allow you to communicate and present your proposal of the plan or program is looking for funding. The purpose of the proposal is to gain funds for a program that will better someone or families. The purpose is to present your program before it is even considered a program. Grant proposals relates to a program plan by proposing ideas, suggesting programs or simply bringing new ideas to the table that need to be approved and funded. They both take in considerations to help others and address problems within a community. Communication is the element the program will be best at and portray. The relevance of communication in the program is top high because it’s used to connect the staff, students and their families and show what’s most important each other. Talking and expressing their needs of why increasing the limited English proficiency skill is the number one key within this program. Alternate funding: Alternate funding will be the bonding aspect within the program. It will include Ideas of nontraditional funding which includes activities that involve the community more than the government. The program is locating funding through fundraising like raffling off tickets for prizes; therefore more people will participate knowing they can win a prize. Another alternate funding strategy would be selling dinners in the community for reasonable prices; the program staff will present talent shows for the community which they will participate in as well. Activities will be listed as, special events like face painting and relay racing would bring more funds to the program. Another idea would be client donations where the staff will donate to the program, whether it’s volunteering or giving a money donation. A funding institution that works with human service organizations is Administration for Children amp; Families (AFC). Its mission along with Health and Human Services (HHS) is responsible for federal programs that promote the economic and social well being of families, children, individuals, and communities, (AFC, 2011). The expectations for evaluating this funding institution are campaigning to rescue and restore families, family and youth services, administration development, child care bureau and many other programs they set to fulfill through their expectations of the ommunity. These expectations influence the evaluation plan and programs by staying true to their mission and achieving their goals. Implementation: The implementation of the program will be tedious, long and drawn out however it’s all for a good cause. During the process and outcomes stage, the process will evaluate the documented and monitored interventions taken for the staff and describe the importance of the program. The data will acknowledge and understand why the skills need to be improved. It will prove why it acceptable in the targeted community. The implementation that will be put forth and fulfilled will show through the structure of the program. Also the stakeholders are the people who invest in the program to develop the skills therefore they are implementing the program as well. Once the proposal was presented to them their share and interest in the program wasn’t just want they invested in the agency but an actual investment. With having a better understanding of the mission of the agency and what the team, parents and staff are dedicated in achieving the stakeholders know for a fact that the group they are investing in has significant obligations they wish to fulfill. Evaluation: The evaluation of the program will be based on the community of Far West, a suburb of New Hampshire Far West community that holds a population of 30,000 where the elementary school holds 700 with 30% of the students who have relocated from a foreign country. Being that the students are from an Asian decent background they have limited experience in English writing, reading and speaking skills. The evaluation of the program opportunity is to improve the limited English proficiency (LEP) skills for teachers, students, and their families. It will evaluate what it negative in the program that needs fixing, it will allow the individual to see the reality of how building a program can really determine whether the program is qualified or not. Conducting assessments will provide the program with information of services at that are needed or services that are not, therefore funds will be saved in the program. Judging whether or not the staff is qualified will also demonstrate evaluations for further training. The evaluation of the program will cover needs being addresses, staff nderstanding and building a rapport with the students and staff and always and follow the mission and value statements of the agency. The evaluation will make sure projects being funded properly, all and outcomes of the programs strengthens the organization. During the empowerment evaluation process it will acknowledge who exactly needs their skills to be improved. Counselors will overlook classroom settings and become involved with the students, and allow them to give me their reasons on why wanting to improve their LEP skills. Staff and students participate with each other in improving the (LEP) skill. It will offer workshops with professional leaders who will oversee activities in upgrading certificates to licenses; therefore the teachers are developing the programs for the students and promoting a professional outlook of the programs. The importance of this program is to improve the skills of limited English proficiency, in the Far West Elementary School located in a low income housing community. This program was chosen for this location because of the presence of families with foreign backgrounds. The program focuses on improving the skill for parents as well, being they involved in the community as well. Overall the importance of the program summary is to provide thoroughness, communication and build the morale of the program; the current staff, students and parents to work together and achieve its mission to better the skills within the school, and the community of the low cost area of Far West Elementary.

Advances in Composite Laminate Theories

Advances in Composite Laminate Theories This paper reviews the Composite Laminate Theories that have already been proposed and developed in the recent years. These theories mainly focus on the macro mechanical analysis of the composite laminates which provides the elastic relations of the lamina. Stress-induced failure can occur in multiple ways in composite materials. Hence to understand and predict transverse shear and normal stress accurately, various composite laminate theories have been developed. The advantages and disadvantages of each model are discussed in detail. In this study, the Composite Laminate Theories are divided into two parts: (1) Single Layer Theory, where the entire plate is considered as one layer and (2) Layer Wise Theory, where each layer is treated separately for the analysis. It starts with displacement-based theories from very basic models such as Classical laminate theory to more complex higher-order shear deformation theory. [6] INTRODUCTION The requirement of composite materials has grown rapidly. These materials are ideal for applications that require low density and high strength. Composite materials provide great amount of flexibility in design through the variation of the fiber orientation or stacking sequence of fiber and matrix materials. The mechanical behavior of laminates strongly depends on the thickness of lamina and the orientation of fibers. Hence, the lamina must be designed to satisfy the specific requirements of each particular application and to obtain maximum advantage from the directional properties of its constituent materials. The normal stresses and through-thickness distributions of transverse shear for composite materials are very important because in laminate composite plates, stress-induced failures occur through three mechanisms. For instance, when the in-plane stress gets too large, then the fiber breakage occurs. However, normally before the in-plane stresses exceed the fiber breakage point, inter laminar shear stress failure occurs when one layer slips tangentially relative to another. Alternatively, transverse normal stress may increase enough to cause failure by which two layers pull apart from each other. Therefore, it is imperative to understand and calculate transverse shear and normal stress through the thickness of the plate accurately. In general, two different approaches have been used to study laminated composite structures, which are: (1) single layer theories and (2) discrete layer theories. In the single layer theory approach, layers in laminated composites are assumed to be one equivalent single layer (ESL) whereas in the discrete theory approach, each layer is considered separately in the analysis. Also, plate deformation theories can be categorized into two types: (1) displacement and (2) stress -based theories. A brief description of displacement-based theories is given below: displacement-based theories can be divided into two categories: classical l aminate theory (CLT) and shear deformation plate theories. Normally, composite laminate plate theories are described in the CLT, the first-order shear deformation theory (FSDT), the global higher-order theory, and the global-local higher shear deformation theory (SDT). DESCRIPTION: In the studies carried out in last few decades, many different theories were presented to overcome various issues and explain the behaviors of composite materials more accurately. In this paper, these theories are reviewed, categorized, and their advantages, weaknesses and limitations are discussed in detail. LAMINATED COMPOSITE PLATES Classical Laminate Theory (CLT) The simplest ESL laminate plate theory is the CLT, which is based on displacement based theories. In the nineteenth century Kirchhoff initiated the two-dimensional classical theory of plates and later on it was continued by Love and Timoshenko. The principal assumption in CLT is that normal lines to the mid-plane before deformation remain straight and normal to the plane after deformation. The other assumptions made in this theory are (1) the in-plane strains are small when compared to unity (2) the plates are perfectly bonded (3) the displacement are small compared to the thickness. Although these assumptions lead to simple constitutive equations, it is also the main limitation of the theory. These assumptions of neglecting the shear stresses lead to a reduction or removal of the three natural boundary conditions that should be satisfied along the free edges. These natural boundary conditions are the bending moment, normal force and twisting couple. Despite its limitations, CLT is s till a common approach used to get quick and simple predictions especially for the behavior of thin plated laminated structures. The main simplification in this model is that 3D structural plates ( with thickness ) or shells are treated as 2D plate or shells located through mid-thickness which results in a significant decrement of the total number of equations and variable, consequently saving a lot of computational time and effort. Since they are present in closed-form solutions, they provide better practical interpretation and their governing equations are easier to solve [6]. This approach remains popular because it has become the foundation for further composite plate analysis theories and methods. This method works relatively well for structures that are made out-of a balanced and symmetric laminate, experiencing either pure tension or only pure bending. The error which is introduced by neglecting the effect of transverse shear stresses becomes trivial on or near the edges and corners of thick-sectioned laminate configurations. It is observed that the induced error increases for thick plates made of composite layers. This is mainly due to the fact that the ratio of longitudinal to transverse shear elastic moduli is relatively large compared to isotropic materials [2]. It neglects transverse shear strains, under predicts deflections and overestimates natural frequencies and buckling loads [3]. Composite plates are, subjected to transverse shear and normal stresses due to their discontinuous through-thickness behavior and their global anisotropic nature [3]. In order to achieve better predictions of the response characteristics, such as bending, buckling stresses, torsion, etc., a number of other theories have been developed which are presented in following sections [6]. Figure1. Deformation Hypothesis [Taken from class notes. Advanced Plate Theory.1] Displacement and strain field for CLT are given below: [Taken from class notes. [1]] First-order shear deformation theories (FSDT) Reissner and Mindlin developed the conventional theories for analyzing thicker laminated composite plate which also considered the transfer shear effects. These theories are popularly known as the shear deformation plate theories. Many other theories, which are extension of SDT, have also been proposed to analyze the thicker laminated composite. These theories are primarily built on the assumption that the displacement w is constant through the thickness while the displacements u and v vary linearly through the thickness of each layer. In general, these theories are known as FSDT. The primary outcome of this theory is that the transverse straight lines will be straight both before and after the deformation but they will not be normal to the mid-plane after deformation. As this theory postulates constant transverse shear stress, it needs a shear correction factor to satisfy the plate boundary conditions on both the lower and upper surface. The shear correction factor is introduced to adjust the transverse shear stiffness values and thereby, the accuracy of results of the FSDT will depend notably on the shear correction factor. Further research has been undertaken to overcome the limitations of FSDT without involving higher-order theories to avoid increasing the complexity of the equations and computations [2, 7]. Authors like Bhaskar and Varadan [23] used the combination of Naviers approach and a Laplace transform technique to solve the equations of equilibrium. Onsy et al. [4] presented a finite strip solution for laminated plates. They used the FSDT and assumed that the displacements u and v vary linearly through the thickness of each layer and are continuous at the interfaces between adjacent layers. They also postulated that the displacement w does not vary through the thickness. These assumptions provide a more realistic situation (when compared with CLPT) where in the shear strains are not continuous across the interfaces between adjacent lamina. The other limitations are (1) assumption of constant shear stress is not correct as stresses must be zero at free surfaces. (2) FDST produces accurate results only for very thin plates. In order to calculate transverse shear more accurately, to satisfy all boundary conditions and to analyze the behavior of more complicated thick composite structures under different loading condition and to overcome the limitations the use of higher-order shear deformation theories are imperative[1]. Figure2. Reissner Mindline Plate [picture taken from MAE 557 class notes. 1] Higher Order Shear Deformation Theory: The limitations of the CLT and the FSDT have persuaded the researchers to develop a number of global HOSDT. The higher-order models are based on an assumption of nonlinear stress variation through the thickness [1]. These theories are developed for thick plates but are predominantly 2D in nature. These theories are capable of representing the section warping in the deformed configuration. At the layer interfaces, some of these models do not satisfy the continuity conditions of transverse shear stresses. Although the discrete layer theories do not have this concern, they are computationally slow when solving these problems because of the fact that the order of their governing equations purely depends on the number of layers [24]. Whitney attempted to examine the problem with inter laminar normal stress [25]. Several authors were involved in developing this theory , for instance the calculation of inter laminar normal stress was studied by Pagano [26], a boundary layer theory by Tang [ 6], the perturbation method by Hsu and Herakovich , and an approximate elasticity solutions by Pipes and Pagano. In most of these models, the laminate is assumed to be reasonably long. The stress singularities were considered in a model presented by Wang and Choi. In order to determine the stress singularities at the laminate free edges, Wang and Choi used the Lekhnitskiis [27] stress potential and the theory of anisotropic elasticity. The Eigen function technique developed by them uses a collocation system at every ply interface to satisfy continuity. The major limitation of this theory is that it can be applied to only relatively thin laminates [17]. In order to explain plate deformation for composite laminate plates with thickness, Ambartsumian proposed a higher-order transverse shear stress function. Various different functions were proposed by Reddy [2], Touratier , Karama and Soldatos. The results of some of these methods were compared by Aydogdu [23]. For example, a 2D higher -order theory is developed by Matsunaga to investigate buckling in isotropic plates for in-plane loads where the effects of transverse shear and normal deformations are predicted in his study. Higher-order theories, which consider the complete effects of transverse shear, normal deformations and rotary inertia, have been studied for the vibration and stability problems of specific laminates. In general, researchers who have wanted to simulate plates have used the third-order shear deformation theories (TSDTs) which was first published by Schmidt and later developed by Jemielita. This theory is also known as parabolic shear deformation plate theory (PSDPT). Researchers like Phan and Reddy [30] applied this theory for the free vibration, the bending and the buckling of composite plates [23]. The same unknown displacements as those used in FSDT were used. This theory also satisfies transverse shear-free conditions at the outer surfaces. The results obtained show that for the thick lami nates the in-plane stresses are predicted much well than those identified using FSDT, but still these results have errors when compared with 3D models. This theory is not based on the layer-wise type, therefore, unlike most of other ESL theories, it does not satisfy the continuity conditions of transverse shear stresses between layers [9]. Vuksanovic proposed another parabolic distribution of shear strains through the laminated plate thickness which has a cubic variation of in-plane displacement. The results confirm that this model can predict the global laminate response better than previous used parabolic methods. The primary limitation is that it is challenging to accurately compute the inter laminar stress distributions [9]. In the third-order shear deformation theories assumes (1) the in-plane displacements are a cubic expression of the thickness coordinate (2) the out-of-plane displacement is a quadratic expression. Carrera presented a third-order shear deformation theory whic h based on the model which was presented by Vlasov for equation of bending plates. By imposing homogeneous stress conditions with correspondence to the plate top-surface the reduced third-order shear deformation model with only three displacement variables was obtained. This was further modified in the same research for the non-homogeneous stress conditions[6]. Figure2. Displacement field and transverse shear stress field for the various composite laminate theories. [* Figure taken from class notes. Advanced_plate_theory.pdf] Trigonometric shear deformation plate theory (TSDPT) Shear deformation plate theories which use trigonometric functions are called TSDPT. In this theory the ability to predict accurate solutions has been enhanced by combing trigonometric terms with the algebraic through the- thickness terms assumed for the displacements. Touratier [48] chose transverse strain distribution as a sine function [23]. Stein developed a 2D theory wherein the displacements are stated by trigonometric series. Stein and Jegley studied the effects of transverse shear stress on the cylindrical bending of the laminated composite plates [31]. The results obtained from these theories show that this theory calculates the stresses more accurately than other theories. Kassapogolou and Lagace used the principle of minimum complimentary energy to introduce a straightforward method to analyze symmetric laminate plates which are subjected to tension/compression [15, 16]. Afterwards Kassapogolou [28] generalized and modified this approach for general unsymmetrical laminate loads i.e. in-plane and out of- plane common moment and shear loads. The shortcomings of this model are that it does not solve the weaknesses of inequality in Poissons ratios. Becker [29] made use of cosine and sine functions for warping deformation of v and w displacement, respectively and developed a closed-form higher-order laminated plate theory. Mortan and Webber presented an analytical method which took into consideration the thermal effects in their model and by using the same approach as Kassapoglou and Becker. Lu and Liu [22] proposed an inter laminar shear stress continuity theory in which the inter laminar shear stress is directly obtained from the constitutive equations. This theory was postulated in order to develop an accurate theory for inter laminar stress analysis by considering both the transverse shear effects and continuity requirements. The drawback in this model is that the deformation in the thickness is neglected and therefore it cannot calculate the inter la minar normal stress directly from the constitutive equations. Later, Lu and Liu [21] developed the interlayer shear slip theory based on a multilayer approach model by investigating the effect of interfacial bonding on the behavior of composite laminates. Finally, Lee and Liu also derived the closed-form solutions for the general analysis of inter laminar stresses for thin and thick composite laminates under sinusoidal distributed loading. Both inter laminar shear stress and inter laminar normal stress at the composite interface were satisfied in this model and also the inter laminar stresses could be calculated directly from the constitutive equations. Touratier [20] proposed a theory based on using certain sinusoidal functions for shear stress. After comparing the results obtained numerically for the bending of sandwich plates it was shown that this theory is more accurate than both FSDT and HOSDT [17]. Hyperbolic shear deformation theory (HSDT): Soldatos proposed the hyperbolic shear deformation theory [6]. Timarci and Soldatos combined the various shear deformation theories to formulate this HSDT. The major advantage of this unified theory is the ability to vary the transverse strain distribution [19]. Authors like Ramalingeswaran and Ganesan [18] have used parabolic and hyperbolic function to uniform external pressure and a simply supported cylindrical shell for cross ply laminated composite by considering an internal sinusoidal pressure [17]. Karama et al. proposed an exponential function for the transverse strain for his study of the bending of composite [6]. Layerwise Theory (LT): (Zigzag effect) In order to present accurate results many new theories like the layerwise theory and individual layer theory have been formulated. Some of the eminent researches involved in developing these theories are Wu, Chen, Plagianakos[13], Saravanos, Fares and Elmarghany[14]. The basic technique employed in these theories is that assuming certain displacement and stress models in each layer of the composite laminates and in order to reduce the unknown variables, equilibrium and compatibility equations are defined at the interface. These theories are often computationally time consuming and very expensive to obtain accurate results due to the fact that they use many different unknowns for multilayered plates. To predict both gross response and the stress distributions accurately a number of layer wise plate models which can represent the zigzag behavior of the in-plane displacement through the thickness have been developed in the recent past. However, in the Layerwise Theories the major drawba ck is that the number of unknown increases significantly with the number of layers and consequently the computational weight becomes considerably heavier and higher. To overcome this problem, various solutions were suggested. Cho and Parmerter presented a model where in the number of the unknowns is independent of the number of layers. They achieved it by superimposing a cubic varying displacement field on a zigzag linearly varying displacement [6]. This method was very efficient as it satisfied the transverse shear stress continuity at the layer interfaces and shear-free surface conditions. The theories that have been developed to justify through-the-thickness piece-wise behavior of stresses and displacement are often subjected to zigzag theories (ZZ). The zigzag effect can be termed as the different tangential elastic compliances of the plies which cause the displacement components to show a quick change of their slopes in the thickness direction at each layer interface. To summar ize, the in-plane stresses can be discontinuous at each layer interface, while the transverse stresses, for equilibrium, must be continuous. In ZZ theory, the compatibility of the displacements and the inter laminar equilibrium of the transverse stresses in the thickness direction are assured by defining a new stiffness matrix [12]. Lekhnitskii was one of the pioneers who tried to define a ZZ theory. The main drawback for this model is the limitation of the approach to only multi-layered composite where each layer is isotropic. Ren later improved this model by using an extension of the theory developed by Reissner to multi-layered plates. This approach used a Lagrange function with five parameters, which represents the DOF of the structure. These are the set of displacement field equations used in zigzag theory. This equation are taken from the class notes, advanced plate theory [1] Mixed Plate Theory: In order to overcome the limitations of each composite laminate theory researchers have started to unify the different laminate theories. Unified equations have been proposed for mixed layer wise and mixed ESL theories. The main aim is to formulate these unified theories in the most general way for users to be able to choose from the approaches like ESL, Layer wise zigzag, etc. and at the same time choose the order of the expansion of displacements and transverse stresses. This class of model has been contemplated over the last few decades. The so-called mixed variation approach based on the variation principles developed by Hellinger was proposed and then improved by Reissner. In this theory the number of variables that must be computed should be at least 2n, where n is the total number of layers. By using the weak form of Hookes Law the number of variables can be significantly reduced, which shows the variables in terms of the three displacements only. Shimpi et al. [11] derived tw o novel formulations with only two variables, which work perfectly for moderately thick isotropic plates. The major limitation is that it requires accurately calculated shear correction factors for transverse shear stresses in multilayered composite plates. Conclusion In this literature review, various composite laminate plate theories have been categorized. The advantages and limitations of each model have been discussed in detail. This paper mainly focused on how efficiently and accurately the various models can predict the transverse shear effects. It is explained that CLT and FSDT are unable to efficiently predict transverse shear stresses of both moderately thick and thick laminated composite plates. Higher order shear deformation theories were developed in order to obtain accurate transverse shear stresses. Also, the zigzag theories satisfying inter laminar continuity of transverse shear stresses at interfaces is unable to accurately compute transverse shear stresses directly from constitutive equations. 3D equilibrium equations have to be adopted to accurately obtain transverse shear stresses which also require heavy computational processing because of the large number of variables which depend on the number of layers, they become impractic al for engineering applications. Some researchers have recently tried to use the transverse shear and warping effect in highly anisotropic composite to passively control the composite structure. Smart passive adaptive structures are a new technological approach for introducing smart and predictable composite materials with wide ranging applications. They can be used to exploit the effects of shear and elastic coupling and link stretching to bending to twisting of the structure. This requires a higher understanding and in-depth knowledge of inter laminar shear. Therefore, predicting transverse shear effect accurately and in practical way for various engineering applications is imperative.